Origins and Pathways to Drug Abuse

Research Findings from September, 2003 Director's Report

This section lists selected summaries from NIDA funded research projects that investigate the origins and pathways to drug abuse. The summaries provided were selected from recent issues of the Director's Report to the National Advisory Council on Drug Abuse. For a more comprehensive listing of NIDA funded projects see the Director's Report.

Perinatal Lead Exposure and Relapse to Drug-Seeking Behavior in the Rat: A Cocaine Reinstatement Study

Prior work published by Dr. Jack Nation and his colleagues at Texas A&M University has shown that perinatal lead exposure enhances cocaine-induced locomotor sensitization. He now reports that perinatal lead exposure enhances cocaine reinstatement, measured in a paradigm that is regarded to be a preclinical model of drug-seeking and relapse. Female rats were gavaged with either 0 or 16 mg lead prior to mating and this exposure procedure was continued through gestation and postnatal day 21. At postnatal day 120, male offspring were trained to self-administer cocaine. Following acquisition of steady-state responding, cocaine restatement was assessed over a 5-hour session in which cocaine self-administration occurred during the first hour, extinction via replacement of cocaine with saline occurred in hours 2-4, followed by a priming i.p. injection of either 0.00, 5.00, 10.00, or 20.00 mg/kg cocaine with assessment of drug-induced reinstatement in hour 5. During hour 5, both the lead-exposed and non-lead-exposed rats exhibited a dose-related increase in saline responding, indicative of "drug-seeking" behavior elicited by environmental cues previously paired with drug reward. The lead-exposed group, however, exhibited more saline responding than the non-lead-exposed group following priming doses of 5.00 and 10.00 mg/kg. These results indicate that low levels of lead exposure during gestation and lactation are associated with enhanced vulnerability to cocaine relapse in response to reintroduction of the drug cue. In the same paper, Dr. Nation cites unpublished data from his research program showing that adult rats with a history of perinatal lead exposure self-administer more low-dose cocaine than non-lead-exposed rats. The mechanism underlying perinatal lead exposure's effects on cocaine sensitivity and vulnerability in adulthood is not known, but Dr. Nation suggests that it could be mediated by lead's direct effects on maternal behavior or by lead's direct effects on the pups which then modulate maternal behavior. Such early pup/dam behavioral interactions could alter motivational circuits expressed in adulthood as enhanced cocaine vulnerability. In view of human data indicating that lead exposure during pregnancy and lactation can produce significant developmental and neurological abnormalities, the present data are particularly important, especially given that 1999 survey data shows approximately 70% of inner-city children have "unsafe" blood lead levels and that this percentage is even higher for urban minority children. Nation, J.R., Cardon, A.L., Heard, H.M., Valles, R., and Bratton, G.R. Perinatal Lead Exposure and Relapse to Drug-Seeking Behavior in the Rat: A Cocaine Reinstatement Study. Psychopharmacology, 168, pp. 236-243, 2003.

Early-Onset Cannabis Use and Cognitive Deficits: What is the Nature of the Association?

Drs. Harrison Pope, Deborah Yurgelun-Todd, and colleagues at McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School investigated whether individuals who initiate cannabis use at an early age, when the brain is still developing, might be more vulnerable to lasting neuropsychological deficits than individuals who begin use later in life. The study sample included both heavy cannabis users (n=122) and subjects (n=87) with minimal cannabis exposure. All subjects underwent a 28-day period of abstinence from cannabis, monitored by daily or every-other-day observed urine samples. Early-onset cannabis users were compared with late-onset users and with controls, using linear regression controlling for age, sex, ethnicity, and attributes of family of origin. Early-onset users (who began smoking before age 17) differed significantly from both the late-onset users (who began smoking at age 17 or later) and from the controls on several measures, most notably verbal IQ (VIQ). Few differences were found between late-onset users and controls on the test battery. However, after adjusting for VIQ, virtually all differences between early-onset users and controls on test measures ceased to be significant. The findings indicate that early-onset cannabis users exhibit poorer cognitive performance than late-onset users or control subjects, especially in VIQ, but the cause of this difference cannot be determined from the present data. The difference may reflect (1) innate differences between groups in cognitive ability, antedating first cannabis use; (2) an actual neurotoxic effect of cannabis on the developing brain; or (3) poorer learning of conventional cognitive skills by young cannabis users who have eschewed academics and diverged from the mainstream culture. Pope, H.G., Gruber A.J., Hudson, J.I., Cohane, G., Huestis, M.A. and Yurgelun-Todd D. Drug And Alcohol Dependence, 69(3), pp. 303-310, April 2003.

Preliminary Evidence for Linkage to Chromosomes 3 and 9 for Substance Dependence

Vulnerability M. Stallings and colleagues working in T. Crowley's center at the University of Colorado have performed a genome-wide search in treatment-referred adolescent volunteers. A phenotype was defined as the average number of dependence symptoms (total number for all illicit substances divided by the number of substances). Analyses revealed Lod "peaks" at 3q24-25 and 9q34 that are not far from locations reported previously by other researchers. A number of candidate genes are associated with these areas; it will remain for future work to replicate these results and assess the functionality of these candidate genes. Stallings, M.C., Corley, R.P., Hewitt, J.K., Krauter, K.S., Lessem, J.M., Mikulich, S.K., Rhee, S.H., Smolen, A., Young, S.E., and Crowley, T.J. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 70, pp. 295-307, 2003.

Neurobehavioral Disinhibition in Childhood Predicts Substance Use Disorder

This longitudinal study determines the extent to which boys at high-average-risk (n=47) and low-average-risk (n=65) for substance use disorder (based upon family-history of illicit drug abuse) differ on a construct of neurobehavioral disinhibition (based upon measures of affect, behavior, and neurocognition), evaluates the capacity of neurobehavioral disinhibition to predict substance use frequency at age 16, and demonstrates the utility of neurobehavioral disinhibition in predicting substance use disorder at age 19. The neurobehavioral disinhibition score significantly discriminated boys at high average risk from those at low average risk at ages 10-12. Neurobehavioral disinhibition at age 16, in conjunction with substance use frequency and risk status group, predicted substance use disorder at age 19 with 85% accuracy and accounted for 50% of the variance in Drug Use Screening Inventory overall problem density score. Neurobehavioral disinhibition was a stronger predictor of substance use disorder (odds ratio = 6.8) than substance consumption frequency (odds ratio = 3.2). Results are consistent with the notion that neurobehavioral disinhibition is a component of a liability to develop substance use disorder. Tarter, R.E., Kirisci, L., Mezzich, A., Cornelius, J.R., Pajer, K., Vanyukov, M., Gardner, W., Blackson, T. and Clark, D. Neurobehavioral Disinhibition in Childhood Predicts Early Age At Onset of Substance Use Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(6), pp. 1078-1085, 2003.

Parent-Child Conflict and Childhood Externalizing Disorders

The authors sought to examine the relationship between parent-child conflict and externalizing disorders (attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, oppositional defiant disorder, or ODD, and conduct disorder, or CD), which can confer increased risk for later substance use disorders. Data were gathered from 808 same-sex 11-year-old twin pairs from a population-based sample, and their mothers. Resulting models suggest that parent-child conflict acts as a common factor increasing vulnerability for multiple childhood disorders. This offers an important target for preventive interventions, perhaps of multiple disorders. Moreover, analyses found that common genetic and environmental factors appear to underlie the externalizing childhood disorders and the parent-child conflict. Thus, such genetically-informed studies can help disentangle genetic and environmental influences, and clarify productive preventive approaches. Burt, A., Krueger, R.F., McGue, M., and Iacono, W. Parent-Child Conflict and the Comorbidity Among Childhood Externalizing Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, pp. 505-513, 2003.

Race/Ethnic Differences in the Effects of Cumulative Adversity on Drug Dependence in Young Adults

This study assesses the effects of cumulative exposure to stressors as a risk factor for drug dependence, and evaluates whether race/ethnic differences in exposure to stressful events contributes to race/ethnic differences in prevalence of drug dependence. Data were analyzed cross-sectionally from a community survey of lifetime adverse experiences and substance and psychiatric disorders among young adults. Data were collected between 1997-2000 in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The sample size is 1,803 former Miami-Dade Public School students, 93% of whom were between ages 19 and 21 when interviewed. Males and females of Cuban origin, other Caribbean basin Hispanics, African-Americans, and non-Hispanic Whites are equally represented. Drug dependence disorder was assessed by DSM-IV criteria using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, and a 41-item checklist of lifetime exposure to major and potentially traumatic experiences were used to measure cumulative adversity. Both measures include age at time of first occurrence. The lifetime rate of drug dependence disorder (total 14.3%) did not vary significantly (p>.05) by socioeconomic group. The rate for males (17.6%) was significantly greater than female rate (10.9%). The African-American rate (6.5%) was dramatically lower than non-Hispanic White (17.0%), Cuban (18.1%) and non-Cuban Hispanic (16.0%) rates despite their dramatically higher exposure to adversity. Twenty eight of 33 individual adversities were associated with the subsequent onset of drug dependence (p<.05). Cumulative lifetime exposure was greatest for males and for African-Americans, and was inversely associated with socioeconomic level. Multivariate discrete-time event history analysis revealed significant independent effects of distal (>1 year earlier) and proximal (previous year) exposure to adverse events (p<.05), controlling for childhood conduct disorder, ADHD, and prior psychiatric disorder. Lifetime cumulative exposure to distant as well as more recent adversity predicts risk of subsequent drug dependence, though it does not explain ethnic group differences in risk. Implications are that distal and proximal stressful events should both be included when measuring stress exposure. Turner, R.J. and Lloyd, D. Cumulative Adversity and Drug Dependence in Young Adults: Racial/Ethnic Contrasts. Addiction, 98, pp. 305-315, 2003.

The Deterrence Hypothesis Reexamined: Sports Participation and Substance Use Among Young Adults

The widely held notion that sports participation reduces subsequent risk of substance use is evaluated with longitudinal survey data of a representative sample of 1,172 youth when they were in their preteen and young adult years. Unlike previous inquiries into the deterrence hypothesis, the present study controls for other major factors previously found to be predictive of alcohol and drug use, such as family structure and stress exposure. Results of analyses revealed that contrary to the deterrence hypothesis, playing high school sports does not appear to be a protective factor that lowers one's involvement in young adult alcohol or drug use--with one exception. Subgroup analyses revealed that among blacks, the greater the extent of high school sports participation the less the risk of substance use. In direct contradiction to the deterrence hypothesis, playing high school sports was found to be positively associated with alcohol use for whites, even in the context of other major predictors of alcohol use. Further analyses revealed that the positive association between sports participation and alcohol use appeared to exist only for white males. These findings cast doubt about the contention that playing high school sports is protective against alcohol and illegal substance use. Eitle, D., Turner, R.J. and McNulty Eitle, T. The Deterrence Hypothesis Reexamined: Sports Participation and Substance Use Among Young Adults. Journal of Drug Issues, 33, pp. 193-222, 2003.

Maternal Correlates of Toddler Insecure and Dependent Behavior

The present study was designed to examine the relationship between characteristics of mothers' and toddlers' insecure and dependent behavior. Two hundred fifty-four 2-year-old toddlers and their mothers were studied using a structured questionnaire administered to the mothers in their homes. The extent to which insecure and dependent behavior is related to the domains of maternal personality traits, maternal drug use, maternal child rearing, and parental marital relations was assessed. Using Pearson correlations and hierarchical multiple regression analyses, the maternal child-rearing and maternal personality domains were found to have a direct effect on the toddlers' insecure and dependent behavior. The maternal child-rearing domain also served as a mediator for the domains of the parents marital/partner relations, maternal personality attributes, and maternal drug use. There was also evidence suggesting an indirect effect of maternal personality attributes on the toddlers insecure and dependent behavior, which is mediated by the domain of maternal child-rearing practices. Implications for the prevention of insecure and dependent behavior in toddlers are discussed. Brook, J.S., Brook, D.W., and Whiteman, M. Maternal Correlates of Toddler Insecure and Dependent Behavior. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 164(1), pp.72-87, 2003.

BIS/BAS Levels and Psychiatric Disorder: An Epidemiological Study

Behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation levels have been theorized to relate to a broad range of psychopathologies. To date, however, studies have focused on a single diagnosis, and the measures used to assess different psychopathologies have varied greatly. This study assessed how levels of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation relate to lifetime diagnoses of depression, anxiety, drug abuse and dependence, alcohol abuse and dependence, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and conduct disorder. A representative community sample of 1,803 individuals between the ages of 19 and 21 in the Miami area was surveyed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview and the Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation Scales (BIS/BAS; Carver & White, 1994). Results supported the role of BIS as a vulnerability factor for depression and anxiety and for BAS Fun-Seeking for drug abuse and non-comorbid alcohol diagnoses. Goals in understanding BIS and BAS are described, including the need for prospective studies with a broader array of behavioral indices. Johnson, S.L., Turner, R.J. and Iwata, N. BIS/BAS Levels and Psychiatric Disorder: An Epidemiological Study. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 25, pp. 25-36, 2003.

Protective Effect of Social Self-Efficacy on the Link between Maltreatment and Internalizing Problems

Data were collected on 305 maltreated and 195 nonmaltreated children from low-income families (aged 5-12 yrs) who were assessed on perceived social self-efficacy and evaluated by camp counselors on internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Younger (<8 yrs) maltreated children exhibited inflated levels of perceived self-efficacy in conflictual peer interactions compared to younger nonmaltreated children. Younger maltreated children with higher levels of social self-efficacy showed significantly less internalizing behaviors compared to younger maltreated children with lower levels of social self-efficacy. For older children (>8 yrs), regardless of maltreatment status, higher levels of perceived social self-efficacy in conflict situations were related to lower levels of internalizing symptomatology. Kim, J. and Cicchetti, D. Social Self-Efficacy and Behavior Problems in Maltreated and Nonmaltreated Children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32(1), pp. 106-117, 2003.

Buffering Effects of Religiosity on Substance Use

This research tested the hypothesis that religiosity buffers the impact of life stress on adolescent substance use. Data were from a sample of 1,182 participants surveyed on 4 occasions between 7th grade and 10th grade. Cross-sectional results showed an inverse relation between religiosity and substance use (cigarette smoking, alcohol use, heavy drinking, marijuana use). Longitudinal analyses using latent growth modeling indicated that the impact of negative life events on both initial level of substance use and rate of growth in substance use was reduced among individuals scoring high on religiosity. Wills, T.A., Yaeger, A.M., and Sandy, J.M. Buffering Effect of Religiosity for Adolescent Substance Use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 17, pp. 24-31, 2003.

Sensation-Seeking Moderates Peer Influences on Marijuana and Cigarette Use

The interactions of sensation seeking with peer influence variables on marijuana and cigarette use were examined. Using survey data from 3,127 eighth graders in 20 U.S. middle schools, authors found that peer pressure and perceived peer marijuana use had a relatively small effect on low sensation-seekers and a much greater effect on high sensation seekers. In addition, aspirations inconsistent with marijuana use appeared protective for high sensation-seekers. These findings suggest that moderate and high sensation-seekers should be the primary audience for substance use prevention efforts directed toward younger adolescents. Reinforcing the perceptions that substance use is inconsistent with personal aspirations might counterbalance the vulnerability sensation-seeking youth to peers. Slater, M.D., Sensation-Seeking as a Moderator of the Effects of Peer Influences, Consistency with Personal Aspirations, and Perceived Harm on Marijuana and Cigarette Use Among Younger Adolescents. Substance Use & Misuse 38(7), pp. 865-880, 2003.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies and Underage Drinking

This research examined whether mothers' expectations about their children's drinking behavior influenced their children's alcohol use through self-fulfilling prophecies and examined factors moderating this influence. The researchers defined self-fulfilling prophecies as expectations that lead to their own fulfillment (Merton, 1948). Longitudinal survey data were used from a study of 505 mother-child dyads living in the rural Midwest who participated in a prevention program. The investigators constructed a measure of the "inaccurate" portion of mothers' expectations by regressing mother's expectation for her child's future alcohol use on a composite score of valid predictors of the child's substance use (such as child's gender, family income, and child's past alcohol use) then creating residuals reflecting the accuracy of the mother's expectation. The investigators found that the inaccurate portion of mother expectations predicted children's future alcohol use after accounting for relevant control variables. Moderation analyses indicated that the self-fulfilling effect of mother expectations was stronger among high self-esteem children and when mother expectations were positive. These findings suggest that mothers have a small but significant self-fulfilling effect on their children's future alcohol use. Madon, S., Guyll, M., Spoth R.L., Cross, S.E., and Hilbert, S.J. The Self-fulfilling Influence of Mother Expectations on Children's Underage Drinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), pp. 1188-1205, 2003.

Outcomes from the Child Development Project

The Child Development Project is a longitudinal, multisite study that examines the development of aggressive behavior disorders in children and adolescents. Families were recruited in two cohorts in 1987 and 1988 at three sites: Nashville, TN, Knoxville, TN, and Bloomington, IN. The original sample included 585 youths and their families. Results from several recent secondary data analyses are presented:

Neighborhood Structure, Parenting Processes, and Externalizing Behaviors
Associations among neighborhood structure, parenting processes, and the development of externalizing behavior problems were examined among youth age 11 to 13. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that less parental monitoring was associated with more externalizing behavior problems at age 11, and more unsupervised time spent out in the community and less positive parental involvement were associated with increases in externalizing behavior at ages 12 and 13. The decrease in externalizing levels associated with more parental monitoring was significantly more pronounced when youths lived in neighborhoods with more residential instability. Beyers, J.M., Bates, J.E., Pettit, G.S. and Dodge, K.A. Neighborhood Structure, Parenting Processes, and the Development of Youths' Externalizing Behaviors: A Multilevel Analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, pp. 35-53, 2003.

Social Rejection and Antisocial Behavior
With a series of ANOVA models and path analysis, this paper examined the relationship between social rejection and growth in antisocial behavior over time. Several findings of note were reported. First, early peer rejection predicted growth in aggression over time. Second, early aggression moderated the effect of rejection, such that rejection exacerbated antisocial development only among children initially disposed toward aggression. Third, social information processing patterns were found to mediate partially the effect of early rejection on later aggression. Dodge, K.A., Lansford, J.E., Salzer Burks, V., Bates, J.E., Pettit, G.S., Fontaine, R. and Price, J.M. Peer Rejection and Social Information-Processing Factors in the Development of Aggressive Behavior Problems in Children. Child Development, 74, pp. 374-393, 2003.

Father Absence and Risk for Early Sexual Activity and Teenage Pregnancy
The impact of father absence on early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy was investigated in longitudinal studies in the United States and New Zealand. In both studies girls were studied prospectively from age 5 until age 18. Results from both datasets revealed that greater exposure to father absence was strongly associated with elevated risk for early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. After controlling for important covariates, there was a stronger and more consistent relationship between father absence and early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy than on other behavioral and mental health problems or academic achievement. Ellis, B.J., Bates, J.E., Dodge, K.A., Fergusson, D.M., Horwood, L.J., Pettit, G.S. and Woodward, L. Does Father Absence Place Daughters at Special Risk for Early Sexual Activity and Teenage Pregnancy? Child Development, 74, pp. 801-821, 2003.

Parents' Monitoring-Relevant Knowledge and Adolescents' Delinquent Behavior
This study examined relationships between parental knowledge and adolescent delinquent behavior over a period of 4 years beginning at age 14. Results showed that parental monitoring-relevant knowledge was negatively correlated with delinquent behaviors at baseline and increases over time in such knowledge were negatively correlated with increases in parent-reported delinquent behavior. Reciprocal correlations may indicate that low levels of parental knowledge predict increases in delinquent behavior and that high levels of delinquent behavior predict decreases in knowledge. Laird, R.D., Pettit, G.S., Bates, J.E. and Dodge, K.A. Parents' Monitoring-Relevant Knowledge and Adolescents' Delinquent Behavior: Evidence of Correlated Developmental Changes and Reciprocal Influences. Child Development, 74, pp. 752-768, 2003.

Effects, Message Sensation and Cognition Value

An experimental study was designed to investigate the influence of message strategies on cognitive processing and changes in attitudes, behavioral intentions, and behavior in relation to marijuana use. Researchers created a measure of message cognition value (MCV) and evaluated anti-marijuana messages designed to vary on cognition value as well as sensation value. Three hundred and thirty eight 18-20 year old college students viewed four anti-marijuana public service announcements four times over a four-week period in a lab setting. They completed instruments measuring the need for sensation (NFS) and need for cognition (NFC), cognitive processing attitudes toward marijuana use, intention to use marijuana, and self-reported marijuana use. There was partial support for a main effect of message sensation value (MSV) on changes in attitude, intention and behavior but limited support for an interaction of MSV with NFS on attitude change. Additionally, a significant main effect for message cognition value (MCV) indicates that high cognition value messages led to greater recall than low cognition messages but there was no interaction effect of MCV with NFC. Cognitive processing and message cognition value did not affect attitude, behavioral intentions or behavior regarding marijuana use. Based on these findings, designing messages high in both sensation value and cognition value should be the goal of prevention campaigns. Harrington, N.G., Lane, D.R, Donohew, L., Zimmerman, R.S., Norling, G.R., An, J.H., Cheah, W.H., McClure, L., Buckingham, T., Garofalo, E., and Bevins, C.C. Persuasive Strategies for Effective Anti-Drug Messages, Communication Monographs 70(1), pp.16-38, 2003.

Using Beliefs About Consequences in Message Design

Improving health communications campaigns through message design is illustrated with findings on messages targeted at adolescent marijuana use. The Integrated Model of Behavior holds that a primary determinant of behavior is the person's intention to perform it; intention, in turn, is a function of the person's attitude, normative pressure and self-efficacy to perform the behavior. These are functions of underlying beliefs about the outcomes of performing the behavior. Based on a sample of 1,175 adolescents from middle and high schools around Philadelphia, the researchers explored 36 behavioral beliefs (i.e., positive and negative consequences that a person thinks will happen to him or her) related to regular marijuana use, and compared the responses of high and low risk youth. They found substantial differences between the groups with respect to the likelihood of an effect but far less difference between the risk groups in the value they place on a behavioral belief related to use. For example, high-risk youth do not believe that marijuana use leads to stronger drugs but low risk youth do; both groups agree that that is a negative outcome. The findings suggest campaign designers use the IM to test for the acceptability of behavioral beliefs; test a comprehensive group of beliefs; focus on the beliefs of the high risk subgroup; select beliefs that are already accepted to change. Capella, J.N., Yzer, M. and Fishbein, M. Using Beliefs about Positive and Negative Consequences as the Basis for Designing Message Interventions for Lowering Risky Behavior. pp. 210-219 in Romer, D. (Ed.) Reducing Adolescent Risk. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003.

Gender Identity, Ethnicity, Acculturation, and Drug Use Among Adolescents in the Southwest

This article presents the findings of a survey completed by 1,351 predominantly Mexican-American middle school students residing in a large urban center in the U.S. Southwest. The study explored associations between drug use attitudes and behaviors and biological sex, gender identity, ethnicity and acculturation status. Based on the concepts of machismo and marianismo that have been used to describe Mexican populations, four dimensions of gender identity were measured: aggressive masculinity, assertive masculinity, affective femininity and submissive femininity. In explaining a variety of indicators of drug use behaviors and anti-drug norms, biological sex alone had limited explanatory power, while gender identity--often regardless of biological sex--was a better predictor. Aggressive masculinity was generally associated with higher risk of drug use, while the other three gender identity measures had selected protective effects. However, the impact of gender identity was strongly mediated by acculturation. Less acculturated Mexican-American students reported lower aggressive masculinity scores than non-Latinos. Less acculturated Mexican-American girls reported both the lowest aggressive masculinity scores and the highest submissive femininity scores. More acculturated Mexican-American students, along with the less acculturated Mexican-American boys, did not appear to be following a polarized approach to gender identity (machismo and marianismo), as was expected. The findings suggest that some aspects of culturally prescribed gender roles can have a protective effect against drug use behaviors and attitudes, possibly for both girls and boys. Kulis, S. Marsiglia, F.F., and Hurdle, D. Gender Identity, Ethnicity, Acculturation and Drug Use: Exploring Differences among Adolescents in the Southwest. Journal of Community Psychology, 31(2), pp. 167-188, 2003.

Effects of Ethnic Pride and Biculturalism on Drug Use Norms of Urban American Indian Adolescents

This study examined how strength of ethnic identity, multiethnic identity, and other indicators of biculturalism relate to the drug use norms of urban American Indian middle school students. Following the focus theory of norms, different categories of norms that may impact drug use are distinguished. Regression analysis of self-reports by 434 American Indian 7th graders attending middle schools in a large southwestern U.S. city show that those with a more intense sense of ethnic pride adhere more strongly to certain anti-drug norms, while those with negative feelings toward their ethnic or racial heritage have more permissive norms toward drug use. Compared to multi-ethnic American Indian students, those claiming only an American Indian identity report less certainty that they would refuse potential drug offers. Those who speak a language other than English with family and friends at least occasionally report that fewer of their friends are drug users. While American Indian students with better grades in school hold consistently stronger anti-drug norms, there are few differences by gender, socioeconomic status, or age. Kulis, S., Napoli, M. and Marsiglia, F.F. Ethnic Pride, Biculturalism, and Drug Use Norms of Urban American Indian Adolescents in the Southwest. Social Work Research, 26(2), pp. 101-112, 2002.